DenialDefinition: The accused argues that the act did not happen or that they did not do it.Example: USAir responded to claims that its planes were unsafe by stating, “Our planes are safe… This is validated each and every day by federal regulators who fly with us, inspect our maintenance facilities and review our records.”

Coding cue: Look for direct rejection of the accusation.

DenialDefinition: The accused shifts blame to another person, group, circumstance, or external force.Example: Nixon shifted responsibility for Watergate campaign operations by explaining that he delegated campaign decisions so the presidency could come first and politics second.

Coding cue: Look for language that moves responsibility away from the speaker to another person or group of people.

Evading ResponsibilityDefinition: The accused argues that they were provoked or pushed into the action.Example: Zinedine Zidane explained his World Cup headbutt by saying, “You hear them once and you try to move away. But then you hear them twice, and then a third time.”

Coding cue: Look for claims that another person’s action triggered the response.

Evading ResponsibilityDefinition: The accused argues that they lacked information, control, or capacity in the situation.Example: Tonya Harding used defeasibility after the Nancy Kerrigan attack when she said, “Everything just happened so fast.”

Coding cue: Look for claims about limited knowledge, confusion, lack of control, or some non-human external cause.

Evading ResponsibilityDefinition: The accused argues that the harmful act or outcome was unintentional.Example: Reagan addressed the Iran-Contra affair by saying, “It’s obvious that the execution of these policies was flawed and mistakes were made.”

Coding cue: Look for language suggesting an error, mistake, or unintended consequences.

Evading ResponsibilityDefinition: The accused argues that they meant to do good, even if the outcome was harmful.Example: Sears responded to accusations that its auto division sold unneeded parts and services by stating that it would never intentionally violate customer trust.

Coding cue: Look for emphasis on motive rather than outcome.

Reducing OffensivenessDefinition: The accused emphasizes positive traits, past accomplishments, or goodwill to offset negative perceptions.Example: After a major long-distance outage in New York, AT&T chairman Richard Allen stated, “We have designed and built our systems to the world’s highest standards.”

Coding cue: Look for reminders of prior good work, positive identity, or reputation.

Reducing OffensivenessDefinition: The accused argues that the act is not as serious or harmful as it first appears.Example: Exxon responded to the Valdez oil spill by saying, “We do not expect major environmental damage as a result of the spill.”

Coding cue: Look for attempts to shrink the perceived damage.

Reducing OffensivenessDefinition: The accused distinguishes the act from other similar but more offensive actions.Example: Washington State basketball coach Dick Bennett said, “Saying a kid screwed up is not like saying they’re a bad person.”

Coding cue: Look for statements designed to make the act seem less severe compared to other harmful acts.

Reducing OffensivenessDefinition: The accused places the act in a broader or more favorable context.Example: Clinton argued that voters wanted the election to focus on “their tomorrows, their future, their problems,” rather than “my yesterdays.”

Coding cue: Look for a shift from the accusation to a larger or more altruistic value, goal, or context.

Reducing OffensivenessDefinition: The accused criticizes the person, organization, or source making the accusation.Example: Dow Corning responded to criticism over silicone breast implants by arguing that a critical article was a “total mischaracterization of the facts.”

Coding cue: Look for language that turns scrutiny back onto the accuser.

Reducing OffensivenessDefinition: The accused offers money, assistance, services, or another form of repayment to victims or affected audiences.Example: After the USS Greeneville collided with a Japanese fishing vessel, the Navy paid for recovery efforts and damages connected to the incident.

Coding cue: Look for offers of repayment, aid, or restitution.

Corrective ActionDefinition: The accused attempts to repair past damage, prevent future harm, or both.Example: After the Union Carbide gas leak in Bhopal, India, the company provided relief funds, medical supplies, and other forms of assistance.

Coding cue: Look for promises to fix the problem or prevent recurrence.

MortificationDefinition: The accused admits responsibility and asks for forgiveness.Example: Trent Lott apologized after praising Strom Thurmond’s 1948 presidential campaign, saying, “I take full responsibility for my remarks. I only hope that people will find it in their hearts to forgive me.”

Coding cue: Look for responsibility-taking, apology, regret, or requests for forgiveness.